CHAPTER TEN
EPISTEMOLOGY
Epistemology
or knowledge is the only medium that can lead to Reality. The evidence shows
that we have to look for things we want to find; they do not put themselves in
our way. Thus accidental discoveries are rare. Again, the existence and
operation of the universe is based on mystery. The cosmos does not display
itself. It is wrong to claim that God reveals Himself. Without mystery there i'
nothing to search for. It is this search which makes life exciting, challenging
ant hopeful. Reality is a mystery; it does not reveal itself; we must look for
it; if il unveils itself, it ceases to be the Mystery or Reality. This is the
function oi knowledge, otherwise, it has no purpose.
Polarity
What is knowledge and how it
arises, are complex questions and cannot be answered through the medium of
definitions. I may, therefore, draw the attention of the reader to the
scientifically established fact that existence of everything depends upon
polarity. For example, electricity is brought about by the interaction of
positive and negative charges. Similarly, there are quarks and antiquarks,
particles and antiparticles, matter and antimatter, electron and antielectron
(positron). Even where distinct polarity cannot be discerned, as in
force-carrying particles, the antiparticles are the same as the particles
themselves. The same remarks apply to the forces of nature because a force has
been described as a mechanism of push and pull.
This situation also prevails in
ordinary life: sweet has no meaning without bitter, light cannot be imagined
without dark; coward does not exist without bold and hot loses its
identity without cold. These opposities are equal in magnitude, and their
opposition is so constructive that not only the identity of one depends upon the
identity of the other but whatever there is in the universe owes its existence
to the harmonious working of the opposite poles. Despite their contrariness,
they are working partners.
Ignorance as part of knowledge
Knowledge is no exception to this
fundamental rule of nature. It comes into being, and sustains itself, only
through ignorance which is its opposite pole. They alternate the same way as day
and night follow each other. In fact, regression of ignorance counts as
progression of knowledge, and vice versa.
Curiosity
Ignorance has precedence over
cognition. Knowledge is the offspring of ignorance as existence is the child of
nothingness. Take "mistake" for instance. It is prompted by ignorance
which requires correction. Such a correction, which is the Opposite of mistake,
ranks as knowledge. Again, knowledge usually comes into being through curiosity
which is represented by such inquisitive words as "how, why, what, where,
when" etc. and many other interrogative forms. Such interrogatives are
ambassadors of ignorance, yet they are the tools of enquiry leading to
knowledge. If we know the answers we shall not use these words and other
interrogative forms. This fact is culturally true as well because civilisation
emanates from a very primitive level which is the antithesis of its modern form.
Exploratory urge of birds
Exploratory urge of birds
illustrates this fact still further. Exploration simply means jumping from the
unknown to the known. This urge of birds is inherent, and is passed on from
generation to generation. Biologists believe that without the exploratory drive,
a bird will perish.
Mystery
Besides curiosity, mystery is also
an integral part of ignorance. A mystery though eventually surmountable, is not
immediately within the bounds of knowledge. It resists knowledge yet it excites
curiosity to enter the realm of knowledge. Without such excitement life shall be
a prolonged process of death due to sheer boredom.
Rainbow
Rainbow is a good example of
mystery. Its stunning colours and the superstitions associated with it explain
its nature. It was considered an animal which drinks up rain to hold it back
from people. The rainbow as a serpent was looked upon as a justification for
bisexuality. In many countries, people thought of it as a divine bridge which
connects the worlds of gods and humans. The Greek declared it the path of the
goddess Iris and some American tribes visualised it as the gorgeous robes of
gods. It was not until 1704 when Newton's publication: "Optics" solved
the mystery of the rainbow by declaring that "white" light is really a
blend of all possible colours: what we call the rainbow is, in fact, the
dispersion of light in the spectrum.
Mystery, a continuous affair
Mystery is a continuous affair
because the solution of one mystery leads to another mystery. Rainbow is
"white" light, but what is light itself? Is it a wave or a stream of
particles? Since scientists can't establish the truth, they claim that it has
dual nature; sometimes it is convenient to treat it as a wave and at other
occasions it is better understood as corpuscular i.e. consisting of particles.
Principle of uncertainty
Uncertainty is yet another
description of mystery. Until we are certain about Something it contains an
element of mystery, which is more like twilight, and not darkness. It is because
the purpose of mystery is to arouse interest in knowledge by limiting its speed
whose unrestrained conduct can be devastating.
Werner Heisenberg stated the
principle of uncertainty scientifically. He propounded that to predict the
future position and velocity of a particle, one must be able to measure its
present position and velocity with complete accuracy but it is not possible
because accurate measurement of the one, leads to the inaccurate determination
of the other. Thus scientists believe that uncertainty is the fundamental
property of the world.
Role of mystery
In fact, uncertainty or mystery is
the pillar of practical life. If we acquire the capacity of absolute knowledge,
then we shall know exactly everything as it is. It will lead to inactivity and
chaos. Why? Because I shall know on what day I am going to be ill or embrace
death and I shall be aware of what is in the mind of my fairweather friends. As
the ozone layer acts as a curtain to save us from the harshness of the Sun, a
bit of mystery provides a good deal of protection against the nasty shocks of
real life. If everyone knew what was going to happen, nobody would strive to do
anything and mankind would cease to exist for lack of trust, self-confidence and
enterprising spirit. Worse still, the excitement and hope that Chance provides,
shall vanish, and life will become a long series of boredom, longing for death.
Purpose of knowledge
Is knowledge inborn or acquired? It
is both. Without innate knowledge, the first living creatures would have
perished instantly for not knowing how to react to the environmental stimuli
such as hot and cold and dark and light. Some innate knowledge is absolutely
essential for survival. This fact also determines the basic purpose of
knowledge, that is, survival, though as knowledge progresses, it comes to be
based on conscience and the concept of survival gains moral force.
Instinctive knowledge
The innate knowledge is referred to
as instinctive knowledge. Ii is inherited by organisms genetically. This type of
knowledge provides not only the fair chance of survival but also guides each
species in determining its own behaviour to differentiate itself from the rest:
the food-hoarding activities of squirrels, web-spinning habits of spiders and
the prey-catching techniques of wolves, explain this point.
Though instinctive knowledge is
minimal, the activity it fosters may lead to complex behaviour as displayed by
many nest-building birds. These nests come in many shapes and sizes and thus
exhibit a patterned arrangement of acts.
Communal sense
Instinctive knowledge also ascends
the boundaries of individual needs to create a communal sense amongst the
members of a species. It has been noted that insects, fishes and birds possess
certain instinctive movements which serve as signals to fellow-members and thus
rank as a communicative mechanism. The beauty of these signals and movements is,
that they are understood only by the members of the species and the prospective
mates. Without such distinctive behaviour communal sense cannot develop. It also
proves that even the lowest organisms are endowed with an instinctive system of
perceptual abilities, and life cannot be sustained without them.
Knowing one's self
Since instinctive knowledge is
inherent, and the basis of survival, it surely starts with knowing one's self.
As I shall discuss later, knowing one's self is not only the beginning of
knowledge but also its end. However, as everything is related to something else,
knowledge of one's self cannot be complete without knowing and evaluating these
relationships. This consideration makes an individual a natural part of his
community thus making his dole and delight dependent upon the realisation of
these relationships.
Man, the cosmic baby
When thinking of relationships, one
comes to realise that an individual's relationship is not confined to the
society but extends far beyond, to the cosmos which was here long before man. In
fact, man is the baby of the cosmos and our earth is a very tiny part of it. All
our properties - physical, intellectual and spiritual, are surely derived from
the elementary particles of the cosmos. We are born in a small part of it,
called the earth; we eat and drink what the earth can provide; we play and rest
on the earth; we grow old on the earth; we die on the earth and are eventually
returned to the earth. In view of these facts, man's relationship with the
cosmos is infinitely greater than with his parents. It is not the parents but
the cosmos that gives us birth and accommodates us.
Cosmos as organism
The cosmos is not a machine but an
organism; a machine, no matter how efficient, is lifeless but an organism, no
matter how clumsy, is live and kicking. The fact that man is a child of the
cosmic evolutionary process, clearly shows that his qualities of intelligence,
wisdom, justice, courage, magnaminity etc., lie dormant in the atoms and become
live when they reach the level of arrangement associated with the human stage.
Purpose of evolution
A study of the cosmic evolutionary
process from the elementary particles to human level, indicates that man is the
highest member of the cosmic family and his greatness is pivoted on
consciousness, that is, the ability to know and create further knowledge.
Without man the universe's knowledge of its self can't be any more than the
consciousness of a dreaming person. The entire purpose of evolution s to create
man so that the cosmos can gain self-cognizance through him because it is only
man who possesses active consciousness and the faculty to understand himself
analytically, and whatever exists in the universe. Although everything is
connected with everything else, this relationship is dormant. It is only through
the human consciousness that it becomes awake. Thus, man serves as the
interconnecting link to the universe and acts as its pulse.
Man, the microcosm
This is what turns man into a
miniature cosmos or microcosm. Thus knowing one's self counts as the universal
knowledge in terms of being.
Urge of self-improvement
Another point that arises from this
discussion is the fundamental cosmic urge for self-improvement. The evolution
(say) from atoms to man denotes a gradual process of self-upgrading which is, in
fact, the realisation of the self-improvement urge. It means that the potential
qualities of atoms such as intellect, consciousness, feeling, dreaming,
determining, designing etc. have been aligned by the long and gradual process of
self-improvement to emerge as man. This is no fairy tale. Look at the computers:
cybernetics can't be anything but engineering of atoms for arranging them into
patterns able to express their underlying intellectual capacity as computers.
The ultimate goal
Yet man can't be the ultimate aim
of the cosmic urge of self-improvement because he is imperfect and needs a lot
of further improvement. The goal of this cosmic urge extends beyond man but I
find it prudent to terminate this discussion here. I shall pick up this strand
in due course. However, I may add that the final goal of the universe is an
integral part of interrelationships, and its understanding requires a good deal
of learning besides instinctive knowledge.
Knowledge is always incomplete
Compared to the instinctive
knowledge which is minimal, the acquired or learnt knowledge is limitless. Man's
rise from horse-riding to flying to the moon, proves this point, and also
confirms that knowledge is never complete. It is not only because ignorance is
an integral part of knowledge but also because knowledge unfolds itself in
stages. We know more than our ancestors did, and our children will know more
than we do. Again, if this were not true, evolution could not take place because
the jump from a lower species to a higher species is usually accompanied by an
increase in the power of understanding. It shows that purpose of knowledge,
whether inherent or learnt, is not only survival but also self-improvement. In
fact, the entire process of evolution, from microbe to man, is an annotation of
this point.
Besides, without knowledge being a
gradual process, the rate of dissemination is likely to be so fast that man will
not keep up with his own innovations and thus it (knowledge) will prove his
Frankenstine. This measured progress of knowledge is rooted in ignorance. Take
fundamentalism-versus-science, for instance. It is amazing how ecclesiastical
ignorance arrested the brilliance of Galileo and how interests of the religious
leaders have curbed the march of Moslem nations towards progress.
Finally, if knowledge were not
limitless, society would eventually become tagnant for lack of new ideas, and
abundance of dogma. Such a state will disturb the balance between ignorance and
knowledge, and the former will swallow the latter, leading to chaos The fact
that the human brain is so brilliant yet possesses a limited memory, expresses
the need for a balance between ignorance and knowledge.
Some implications of knowledge
At this juncture, one must
realise some implications of knowledge:
a. Dividing line between knowledge
and ignorance becomes very thin, indeed, when knowledge is subjected to wilful
interpretations to suit the purpose of the interpreter People, not only in the
religious field but also in scientific theories, resort to deliberate falsehood
to prove something which they ought to condemn. Einstein, for example, to
appease his religious convictions, concocted what is called "cosmological
constant" for introducing a new antigravity force into his equations of the
general theory of relativity. By this exercise he wanted to prove against all
evidence, that the universe was static.
It shows that an increase in
knowledge proportionately expands the frontier of ignorance either through the
reactions of the fundamentalists or through the exaggerated attitudes of the
zealots.
Quest for Eternity
b. . Quest for life beyond death is
the natural instinct of man because survival is his most ardent passion. This
desire is as naturally embedded in him as greenery lies dormant in a field.
Therefore, the branch of knowledge that restricts life-span to three scores and
ten years and does not anticipate what lies beyond, is like the brilliant eye
which cannot penetrate through a solid barrier. There is nothing more legitimate
than the search for eternity because without eternity, knowledge itself becomes
perishable for the simple reason that it is peculiar to man: no man, no
knowledge, and thus loses its purpose which is survival.
Free Will
c. Knowledge means knowing more and
more. Therefore, it implies an everincreasing choice which advocates free will
i.e. the freedom to choose and act. On the contrary, ignorance indicates
constant shrinkage of knowledge and minimization of choice leading to external
controls. In communist lands, stateworship is deliberately fostered to keep
people ignorant of their civil liberties for practicing deterministic
philosophy. This equally applies to the religious fundamentalists who resort to
false propaganda against other faiths and tenets to indoctrinate their followers
for subjecting them to their own will.
However, one should not forget the
complementary role of ignorance which Contributes to the meritorious aspect of
knowledge because without it the elements of curiosity, mystery and balanced
growth of knowledge cannot come into being. Evolution is nothing but gradual
emergence of knowledge through the interactions of cosmic forces.
Knowledge can't be defined
d. Knowledge cannot be defined
precisely. One can only describe it approximately e.g. it is an answer to a
question, and the answer may be the result of an accident or a deliberate
effort, which recognises a case or a proposition for an investigation
Trust and knowledge
e. Knowledge cannot be complete or
absolute. Therefore, one is quite legitimately entitled to hold presuppositions.
Again, knowledge is more indirect and less direct because we cannot observe
everything ourselves, and are obliged to depend upon the testimony of others.
Even direct evidence of witnesses becomes hearsay evidence to the presiding
judge who has not himself seen the events. Thus knowledge comes to be based on
trust, and "I believe this to be true" ranks as "I know it to be
true", at least until such time that one's trust can be proved misplaced.
However the belief emanating from bribe or fright (heaven or hell) as in the
case of "revealed" religions does not qualify as trust because it is
forced upon the believers.
Effect of time on knowledge
f. Meaning of knowledge and its
purpose is not usually accepted as it is but governed by the spirit of time. In
a materialistic age as ours, economic theories such as Marxism, colour the
vision of life. About two hundred years ago, abandonment of material necessities
and indulgence in asceticism marked the apex of knowledge. Even scientists wore
the yoke of bigotry; Newton, like the people of his age, believed in an absolute
God and thus considered space as absolute against the implications of his own
laws. Before him, Galileo, despite knowing the falsehood of the Biblical
doctrine, remained a faithful Catholic.
Practical aspect of knowledge
g. Finally, knowledge is not power
but the potential power. H2O, as an underlying principle of water though
meaningful in itself, does not become a reality until atoms of hydrogen and
oxygen combine in the ratio of 2:1. It follows that knowledge is not just a
theoretical affair but also has a practical aspect.
Source of knowledge
How is knowledge attained? Many
theories have been evolved on this subject and each has some truth in it but
they all can be integrated into a single whole if I state that knowledge is
mainly the function of the brain which has several faculties such as sensory
organs, perceptical ability, memory, dreaming, thinking, reasoning and
intuition. The truth of this statement lies in the fact that when the brain is
influenced by anaesthetics or stunned by a blow, we become unconscious and know
nothing about ourselves or the environment. Without a minimum degree of
consciousness, life is not possible: in hibernation, an animal is said to retain
some 10°70 of its consciousness to react to the external stimuli for staying
alive.
The brain
According to the-present state of
knowledge, the human brain comprises some lo1' neurons Thus the total number of
synaptic contacts is likely to be 10'4. It makes the brain a very vast system
based on an autonomous will.
The embryonic human brain, during
the first three weeks, looks like the embryonic brain of any other animal. It
shows the similarity of origin of all beings. However, as the time progresses,
the human brain exhibits the parts which are not seen in those of the lower
species. Obviously, it is a proof of its further development It has been
suggested that the appearance of the extra brain tissues resulted in the
development of higher and additional faculties. During the evolutionary process,
the brain has retained all its original associations - ranging from the oldest,
innermost region known as the reptilian complex, to cerebral cortex. Since the
reptilian complex governs the basic functions to ensure survival, it has been
held as a remnant of the times when ancestors of the human race still dwelt in
marshes. The cerebral cortex is associated with intellect which gives man
behavioural dignity, leading to cultural and spiritual values.
Teleology
Sensing, perceiving and the
intellectual disciplines are essentially the functions of the brain (and central
nervous system). Animals deprived of cerebral lobes lose their ability to
perceive, judge and remember. Identity of an individual is inseparable from the
brain and the sense of actual existence is also a part of it, and lies in the
parietal lobe. Thus physical structure of the human brain along with the central
nervous system, carries evidence of the beginning of intellect in organisms to
its existing magnitude. This unique development has been in response to
environmental vicissitudes and pressures. Since it marks the triumph of the
intellectual process leading to consciousness, which makes the existence of the
cosmos felt, it alludes to a purpose inscribed into the molecules and exhibits
capability of realising it.
Sensory reception
Apart from the inherent
epistemological powers of the brain, learnt knowledge starts with sensory
reception which enables an organism to react to changes in external and internal
environments. This is facilitated by the neural elements which translate changes
into nerve impulses. Without this process, organisms, especially at the higher
level, could not survive for lack of adjustment.
The mechanism of sense reception
speaks for its role in epistemology. Each type of sense cell or receptor
produces a specific output reaction and a measured sensation known as the
``modality perceived". The significance of a sense cell becomes obvious by
the fact that if the optic nerve could be functionally joined with the ear and
the acoustic nerve connected with the eye, lightning would not be seen but heard
and thunder would be seen instead of being heard.
Even the instinctive knowledge is
likely to lose its value without the most befitting biological arrangement of
sense cells, which ensure selectivity by inhibiting the effect of the unwanted
simuli and making extremely sensitive the effect of the desired ones. Without
such selectivity, sensation will be very confusing, indeed This process is
further aided by the fact that there is a close relationship between the highly
developed sense organs and regions of the central nervous system for
coordinating the incoming information which enables the organism to understand
its environment.
Sense organs
To the traditional senses of man
such as sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch the modern knowledge has added
several more; skin alone is said to possess a number of different modalities or
senses such as hot, cold, pressure and pain. Yet another addition is the
kinesthetic sense i.e. the sense organs in muscles, tendons and joints. Again,
scientists have discovered a sense of balance or equilibrium. The circulatory
system is also endowed with receptors (sense cells) which respond to the changes
in blood pressure, and even the digestive tract has its receptors which mediate
the experiences of hunger and thirst.
Perception
Surely, without sensory reception,
knowledge is impossible. Without the mediation of the sensory faculties, even
the inherent knowledge of the brain will be hazy and insensible. However,
sensory reception in itself is not knowledge but sense data requiring
coordination and interpretation. It is done by perception, a faculty of the
brain which translates the sensory stimulation into an organised experience or
percept, a joint product of the stimulation and process of perceiving. There is
always a specific relationship between a stimulation and its associated percept.
For example, light from a distant star bears testimony to its properties but
assessment of the truth depends upon the accuracy of the inference that we draw
from it.
Relativity of knowledge of
observer
A percept is obviously a private
experience because I see and feel with my own sense organs which are peculiar to
myself, and their sensitivity and level of operation may also vary from other
people. This is the reason that no one may know how I feel or think about a
certain experience. This is an extension of mystery which is a part of
ignorance, and explains its role in life.
It also follows that knowledge is
relative to the observer. Understanding depends upon the acuity of one's sense
organs, one's age and maturity, one's personal conflict and expectancy, one's
culture and faith, one's habits, training and experiences. Above all, one's
concentration of mind, intensity of purpose, the magnitude of stimulus, sex,
time and distance - all play roles in acquiring knowledge and these roles are
relative to the observer.
However, though knowledge is
relative to the observer, the reality it seeks is universal e.g. distance of the
moon from the earth or its size are the same for everyone. Thus perception
cannot impose its own dimensions on the exterior world which exists
independently, and the observer recognises them according to his own perceptual
abilities.
Problems of Epistemology
Instead of making understanding
easier, the epistemologist has made it more difficult. He argues that as
perception is a private experience, testimony based on it cannot be valid, and
therefore, we cannot know if a real physical world exists independently of human
experience!
Proof of existence
This is a strange stance but one
cannot dismiss it as fun. Every point of view deserves consideration. I am not
an illusion; I exist because I worry about my survival. That what does not
exist, cannot worry about its existence. Again, the entire civilisation and its
physical trappings result from man's struggle for existence. The one who asks
this type of question must also exist; otherwise he could not ask questions. If
I exist, my parents, brothers and sisters must also exist, and so must all
members of the society. Again, they must exist somewhere. Since they exist on
earth which is a part of the universe, the universe itself must also exist.
The scientists have solved this
problem beautifully. They have demonstrated beyond doubt that the cosmos was
here before the emergence of man, and without the cosmos, man could not have
come into being. The Bible also confirms that the earth and heaven were created
before man. The Koran also states that the earth, heaven, angels, Iblis (Satan)
etc. existed before Adam was created.
Since existence was a reality
before the birth of man, what can turn the universe including man, into an
illusion? The human mind is a part of the human body which exists in this
universe. If the human mind can't perceive this reality, fault lies with the
mind and not the universe.
World as an illusion is an old myth
cleverly woven into the texture of philosophy. It is simply a device of escapism
based on despondence which thrives on denial of reality. The world is real: an
elephant looks an elephant to me each time I gaze at it; neither its shape nor
its dimensions change. If the elephant were not a reality, it must appear as
different things at different times.
Brain and innate ideas
The epistemologists also doubt if
the brain has any innate ideas. Brain is the highest and the most complex form
of existence in the universe. Its power to criticise itself and appraise
everything else testifies to its excellence. Since ordinary atoms have latent
properties, their most accomplished form, that is, the brain must possess
immeasurably higher qualities. As an idea represents potential power, innate
ideas must be the cornerstone of the brain. The fact that different nations at
different times thought of similar mathematical theories, vouches for this fact.
Again, the consistency of the grammatical rules of various languages proves the
originality of the human brain in terms of thinking and innovation.
Innovative power of brain
Innovative power of the brain is
demonstrated by its virtue to increase its Perceptual abilities almost
endlessly. Take, for example, a person of weak eye-sight. With glasses, he may
be able to read the minute print and by using a powerful telescope, he may
observe the wonders of the moon and beyond.
Rationalism
It is said that perception is an
unconscious process of the brain. May be it is so, due to the tremendous
computations involved. However, reasoning is surely a conscious faculty of the
brain because it involves weighing up the pros and cons of things, their
analysis and synthesis. It is critical but judicious. Rationalists claim that
reason provides the perfect guidance. It is positive and contains no
hypothetical element.
Limits of rationalism
Though I adore rationalism, I find
these claims exaggerated because the best scientific conclusions are based on
hypotheses. For example, the assertion that the universe is closed and finite,
cannot be proved exclusively. Again, the statement that in a finite yet
boundless universe, the maximum possible distance between two points is not much
greater than 10'° light years, is nonsensical because the figures involved are
too large to be encompassed by the flight of imagination for rational
understanding.
Again, in logic there is always a
counter-argument for every argument. Though in pure knowledge, it is essential
to create mystery and curiosity, in practical life, it may not always be helpful
and may lead to confusion. For example, the second postulate of the Special
Theory of Relativity states that the velocity of light is always constant
relative to an observer irrespective of how fast or slow an observer and a light
source are approaching or separating: the speed and direction of movement of an
observer should affect the velocity of light yet it travels at 186,000 miles a
second relative to the observer. Why? Because this is the law of nature and
reason cannot negate it.
It certainly does not lower the
value of reason because everything that has a practical significance is within
the reach of reason. In fact, reason is intellect and intellect is reason. This
is what elevates a mammal to the dignity of man, and this is what saves him from
the clutches of total ignorance to keep the candle of knowledge aflame.
Rationalists also claim that senses
cannot gauge universals i.e. abstract concepts such as whiteness. The fact is
that unless one can see white things, one cannot reasonably think of whiteness.
An abstract noun (universal) is just an extension of a common or proper noun and
cannot exist on its own.
Reason itself is a higher faculty
of the brain and can have no meaning without sensory reception and perceptual
abilities. Can there be a sensible or reasonable person without sense organs
such as sight, smell, taste, touch, hearing and many other senses that science
has discovered? Without senses a person will lack the ability to survive for not
being able to respond to the internal and external stimuli
Empiricism
Empiricism is not an antithesis of
rationalism but its natural extension because it intends to test the validity of
a reasonable hypothesis experimentally. Surely, no rationalist wants a fantasy
to gain the status of a fact.
Intuition
intuition is the highest faculty of
the brain and serves as the final arbiter of the truth. Whereas reason decides
on the basis of certainty or balance of probabilities through an intellectual
process of sifting the truth from trivialities, intuition reaches its verdict by
the sheer intensity of its insight. It is an intellectual virtue which is
peculiar to humans only. It is a torch whose luminosity varies from person to
person. Some of us possess it in greater degree than others. Mostly, it is to be
found as a potential, but with devotion it becomes active. However, as a general
rule, it illuminates the paths that one treads purposely. A person may be a
genius in a certain respect, say, as a guitar player but if he does not play the
guitar, intuition will not guide him; it will stay dormant for lack of devotion.
Some examples of intuition through devotion are to be found in daily life; a
physicist gets the feel without consciousness that his experiment will succeed
if he adopts certain measures. An architect may decide without knowing the
geological reasons that construction work should not commence on a certain plot
of land. We know that Newton asserted the veracity of the views of Galileo which
lacked experimental validity. Some aspects of Einstein's theory were tested to
be true long after his death. Michael Faraday had no formal qualifications, yet
he was the first to develop the concept of electromagnetic fields.
All these discoveries were
intuitive. It shows that intuition is not a guesswork based on experience. A
discovery or judgement is intuitive only when it is correct and carries no
element of speculation related to the techniques of argument and
counter-argument. Intuition is like a glow-worm (Lampyris Noctiluca) which is
self-illuminating and whose luminosity increases correspondingly as conditions
become murkier. It is the natural guide and needs no measurement, calcualtion or
sense-data.
Nature of intuition
Intuition may also act as a flash
when one is riding the fantasy-horse. A sudden thought to do or not to do
something is an example of this flash which is always instructive and prompts
righteousness. The flash persuasive of evil is not intuition but a force of the
morbid mind.
Intuition may also be activated by
the need for weighing up a situation when reason cannot decide it one way or
another. Thus intuition is not under the command of the will. It operates
independently.
Intuition and mystical vision
Contrary to the function of
instinct which guides an organism at the lower level, intuition operates at the
highest level, that is, it steers mankind towards eternity. Thus its goal is
much loftier than that of instinct. In the intuitive field, the end does not
justify the means but the instinctive behaviour is more interested in achieving
the end than worrying about the legitimacy of means. Thus, intuition concerns
moral conscience and the matters spiritual. Its ultimate aim is to create
mystical vision leading to Godhead.
Idealism is yet another important
issue of epistemology but I shall postpone its discussion to a later stage.
Evidence
Finally, the purpose of sensory
reception, perceptual abilities, thinking and reasoning is to provide evidence
for reaching a conclusion, the goal of knowledge:
1. Evidence is direct when it is
based on personal observation but it is indirect or hearsay when it is accepted
on trust.
2. Direct evidence is closely
related with the magnitude of the observer's sensory organs and perceptual
abilities.
3. The quality of hearsay evidence
involves more than the witness's sensory powers and perceptual abilities. His
memory, motives, integrity and voluntariness are of the utmost-importance.
4. The method of tendering evidence
exhibits its own significance, as displayed by the court-procedures and skills
of the professional advisers.
5. Methods of collecting evidence
and interpreting it are equally important to the outcome.
Inference
Inference is another word for
interpreting. It means deriving conclusions from the available evidence or the
information offered. An inference must be reasonable. Emotion, faith, prejudice
and wild imagination have no place in it. Above all, the motive and purpose must
not influence the nature of the evidence i.e. the material collected for this
purpose.
Some of the accepted methods of
inference are as follows:
a. Induction: it is arguing from
many instances to a general statement.
b. Deduction: it implies analysing
the accepted forms of argument for eliciting the conclusion implicit in their
premises.
c. Statistical reasoning: its
conclusions are based on averages, that is, a certain percentage of a set of
figures is held satisfactory to justify the stated conditions.
d. Probability is based on the
frequencies that take place within a certain sphere and lead to conclusions of
stated likelihood.
From the above, it is not difficult
to understand that pure reason i.e. the reason free from the pollutions of bias
and bigotry, is the basis of inference i.e. drawing conclusions. However, as
knowledge is relative to the observer, none of the stated methods can guarantee
a universally acceptable judgement, and different people may draw different
conclusions from the same evidence. Despite this diversity of opinion, the
eventual judge still remains inference: even the scientific data are
Subject to the authority of
inference for emerging as meaningful concepts. Thus inference passes the
ultimate judgement based on pros and cons. On the contrary, intuition is the
supreme judge when pros and cons are not available.
What I am about to say in the
succeeding chapters shall be expressed in terms of the evidence provided by
physics and biology. The reader is entitled to draw his own inference.
| 
Introduction
to Book III
